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Ficus

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the species commonly known as the "ficus tree", see Ficus benjamina. For sea snails, see Ficus (gastropod). For Monroe Ficus, see Too Close for Comfort.
"Fig tree" redirects here. For the 2009 film, see Fig Trees.

Fig trees
Temporal range: Maastrichtian–Present
Sycamore fig, Ficus sycomorus
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Moraceae
Tribe: Ficeae
Dumort.
Genus: Ficus
L.[1]
Type species
Ficus carica
L.[2]
Species

About 800, see List of Ficus species

Synonyms[1]
28 Synonyms
  • Boscheria Carruth.
  • Bosscheria de Vriese & Teijsm.
  • Caprificus Gasp.
  • Covellia Gasp.
  • Cystogyne Gasp.
  • Dammaropsis Warb.
  • Erosma Booth
  • Erythrogyne Vis.
  • Galoglychia Gasp.
  • Gonosuke Raf.
  • Macrophthalma Gasp.
  • Mastosuke Raf.
  • Necalistis Raf.
  • Oluntos Raf.
  • Perula Raf.
  • Pharmacosycea Miq.
  • Plagiostigma Zucc.
  • Pogonotrophe Miq.
  • Rephesis Raf.
  • Stilpnophyllum (Endl.) Drury
  • Sycomorphe Miq.
  • Sycomorus Gasp.
  • Synoecia Miq.
  • Tenorea Gasp.
  • Tremotis Raf.
  • Urostigma Gasp.
  • Varinga Raf.
  • Visiania Gasp.

Ficus (/ˈfaɪkəs/[3] or /ˈfiːkəs/[4][5]) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. Many Ficus species are grown for their fruits, though only two species, the common fig (F. carica) and sycamore fig (F. sycomorus), are cultivated to any extent, with common fig being the type species and by far the most important.[6] The fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic importance or eaten as bushfood. However, they are extremely important food resources for wildlife. Figs are also of considerable cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects of worship and for their many practical uses.

Description

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Aerial roots that may eventually provide structural support
A Ficus carica (common fig)
The stipule of Ficus religiosa. The white stipule contains a new leaf and a new stipule.
Ficus benjamina ripening fruit
Ficus watkinsiana fruit

Ficus is a pantropical genus of trees, shrubs, and vines occupying a wide variety of ecological niches; most are evergreen, but some deciduous species grow outside the tropics or at higher elevations.[7] Individual species vary greatly. For example, the Indian banyan (F. benghalensis), with its extensive adventitious roots, can cover over a hectare (2.5 acres), while F. nana of New Guinea never exceeds one meter (forty inches) in height and width.[8]

Fig species are characterized by their unique syconium, an urn-shaped inflorescence that encloses numerous tiny flowers. These flowers develop into multiple ovaries on the inner surface, so the fig “fruit” is essentially a fleshy stem containing many small, coalescing flowers.[9] Pollination is highly specialized, relying on wasps of the family Agaonidae.[10]

Specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but members of the genus Ficus are relatively easy to recognize. Many have aerial roots, that can be 50 m (160 ft) in length,[11] a distinctive shape or habit, and distinguish fruits. Notably, three vegetative traits together are unique to figs: a white to yellowish latex (sometimes abundant), paired stipules or stipular scars on the twigs, and "triveined" leaves, in which the lateral veins at the leaf base form a tighter angle with the midrib.

Some better-known species that represent the diversity of the genus include, alongside the common fig, whose fingered fig leaf is well known in art and iconography: the weeping fig (F. benjamina), a hemiepiphyte with thin, tough leaves on pendulous stalks adapted to its rain forest habitat; the rough-leaved sandpaper figs from Australia; and the creeping fig (F. pumila), a vine whose small, hard leaves form a dense carpet of foliage over rocks or garden walls.

Reproductive biology

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The syconium of Ficus species is the structure that develops into the fig "fruit", a type of multiple fruit, if pollinated. It is a hollow, fleshy receptacle containing tiny flowers on its inner surface, accessible only through a small opening at the apex called the ostiole lined by bracts.[12][10] Inside the syconium, numerous tiny unisexual flowers line the inner wall.[13] Male (staminate) flowers are usually positioned near the ostiole, while female (pistillate) flowers occupy the interior surface.[13] In some cases, however, male flowers may be scattered among the female flowers.[14] Pollination occurs when pollen is carried through the ostiole and deposited onto the receptive stigmas of the female flowers. This process naturally occurs when very small wasps such as Pegoscapus that crawl through the opening in search of a suitable place to lay eggs.[15]

Once a pollen grain lands on the stigma, it germinates and produces a pollen tube that grows down through the style to reach the ovule.[16] After fertilization, each fertilized ovule develops into a small, one-seeded fruitlet.[17] Because many female flowers are present, one fig may contain hundreds or even thousands of fruitlets.[17] As they develops, the surrounding receptacles enlarge and become fleshy, forming the fig "fruit". The seeds formed through sexual reproduction are later dispersed by animals that consume the fruit.[18]

In addition to sexual reproduction, figs can also reproduce vegetatively.[19] Particulary in cultivation, vegetative propagation methods such as cuttings, layering, grafting are used to preserve desirable traits and ensure uniformity.[20] This is especially important in varieties that produce seedless fruits due to a parthenocarpic mutation, where the syconium develops without fertilization. Because these fruits lack viable seeds, propagation must be carried out vegetatively.[19]

Sexual system

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Further information: Plant reproduction

Ficus species are classified as either monoecious or gynodioecious.[21] In monoecious species, male and female flowers occur together in the same syconium, allowing a single plant to reproduce. In gynodioecious species, however, the sexes are separated on different trees. Male trees bear syconia containing male (staminate) flowers and short-styled female (pistillate) flowers, while female trees only have long-styled female flowers.[10] The long-styled flowers tend to prevent wasps from laying their eggs within the ovules, while the short-styled flowers are accessible for egg laying.[22]

Ecology

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Figs are keystone species in many tropical forest ecosystems. Their fruit are a key resource for frugivores including fruit bats, capuchin monkeys, langurs, gibbons, and mangabeys. They are even more important for birds such as Asian barbets, pigeons, hornbills, fig-parrots, and bulbuls, which may subsist almost entirely on figs when these are plentiful. Many Lepidoptera caterpillars feed on fig leaves, for example several Euploea species (crow butterflies), the plain tiger (Danaus chrysippus), the giant swallowtail (Papilio cresphontes), the brown awl (Badamia exclamationis), and Chrysodeixis eriosoma, Choreutidae and Copromorphidae moths. The larvae of the citrus long-horned beetle (Anoplophora chinensis), for example, feed on the wood of the fig tree; the species can become a pest in fig plantations. Similarly, the sweet potato whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as potted plants and can be spread through the export of these plants to other localities.

Mutualism with the pollinating fig wasps

[edit]
Further information: Reproductive coevolution in Ficus
Ficus exasperata, fruits

The unique fig pollination system involves tiny, highly specific wasps, known as fig wasps, that enter via ostiole these subclosed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs.[23] Each species of fig is pollinated by one or a few specialised wasp species, and therefore plantings of fig species outside of their native range results in effectively sterile individuals. For example, in Hawaii, some 60 species of figs have been introduced, but only four of the wasps that fertilize them, so only those species of figs produce viable seeds there and can become invasive species. This is an example of mutualism, in which each organism (fig plant and fig wasp) benefit each other, in this case reproductively.[24][25]

The intimate association between fig species and their wasp pollinators, along with the high incidence of a one-to-one plant-pollinator ratio have long led scientists to believe that figs and wasps are a clear example of coevolution. Morphological and reproductive behavior evidence, such as the correspondence between fig and wasp larvae maturation rates, have been cited as support for this hypothesis for many years.[26] Additionally, recent genetic and molecular dating analyses have shown a very close correspondence in the character evolution and speciation phylogenies of these two clades.[23]

According to meta-analysis of molecular data for 119 fig species 35% (41) have multiple pollinator wasp species. The real proportion is higher because not all wasp species were detected.[27] On the other hand, species of wasps pollinate multiple host fig species.[28] Molecular techniques, like microsatellite markers and mitochondrial sequence analysis, allowed a discovery of multiple genetically distinct, cryptic wasp species. Not all these cryptic species are sister taxa and thus must have experienced a host fig shift at some point.[29] These cryptic species lacked evidence of genetic introgression or backcrosses indicating limited fitness for hybrids and effective reproductive isolation and speciation.[29]

The existence of cryptic species suggests that neither the number of symbionts nor their evolutionary relationships are necessarily fixed ecologically.[29] While the morphological characteristics that facilitate the fig-wasp mutualisms are likely to be shared more fully in closer relatives, the absence of unique pairings would make it impossible to do a one-to-one tree comparison and difficult to determine cospeciation.[citation needed]


Calcium-oxalate fixation

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Several species of Ficus have been observed to sequester atmospheric CO2 as calcium oxalate in the presence of oxalotrophic bacteria and fungi, which catabolize the oxalate, which produces calcium carbonate. The calcium carbonate is precipitated throughout the tree, which also alkanalizes the surrounding soil. This process was first observed in the Iroko tree, which can sequester up to a ton of calcium carbonate in the soil over its lifespan.[30] These species are current candidates for carbon sequestration agroforestry.

Systematics

[edit]

With over 800 species, Ficus is by far the largest genus in the Moraceae, and is one of the largest genera of flowering plants currently described.[31] The first subdivision of Ficus based on leaf morphology was proposed by Carl Peter Thunberg in 1786.[32] In 1844, Guglielmo Gasparrini proposed to divide the species now included in Ficus into several separate genera, providing the basis for a subgeneric classification when Friedrich Miquel reunited these groups into one genus in 1867.[32] Miquel's classification put functionally dioecious species into four subgenera based on floral characters.[33] In 1965, E. J. H. Corner reorganized the genus on the basis of breeding system, uniting these four dioecious subgenera into a single dioecious subgenus Ficus. Monoecious figs were classified within the subgenera Urostigma, Pharmacosycea and Sycomorus.[34] The revised classification proposed by Cornelis Berg and Corner (2005) recognized six subgenera: Pharmacosycea, Urostigma, Ficus, Sycidium, Synoecia and Sycomorus.[32]

This traditional classification has been called into question by recent phylogenetic studies employing genetic methods to investigate the relationships between representative members of the various sections of each subgenus.[23][33][35][36][37] Of Corner's original subgeneric divisions of the genus, only Sycomorus is supported as monophyletic in the majority of phylogenetic studies.[23][33][36] Notably, there is no clear split between dioecious and monoecious lineages.[23][33][35][36][37] One of the two sections of Pharmacosycea, a monoecious group, form a monophyletic clade basal to the rest of the genus, which includes the other section of Pharmacosycea, the rest of the monoecious species, and all of the dioecious species.[37] These remaining species are divided into two main monophyletic lineages (though the statistical support for these lineages is not as strong as for the monophyly of the more derived clades within them). One consists of all sections of Urostigma except for section Urostigma s. s.. The other includes section Urostigma s. s., subgenus Sycomorus, and the species of subgenus Ficus, though the relationships of the sections of these groups to one another are not well resolved.[23][37]

Selected species

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Main article: List of Ficus species

Ficus species are found worldwide, mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. As of July 2025, there are 881 accepted Ficus species according to Plants of the World Online.[1] Most species occur in the Indo-Australasian region, with about 511 species, making it the main center of diversity. The highest diversity is in Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Borneo. About 132 species grow in the Neotropical region (Central and South America). In the Afrotropical region, including Madagascar, around 112 species are recognized, with 36 found in southern Africa and 25 native to South Africa.[38] In the tropical forest, Ficus is often the most species-rich plant genus, particularly in Asia.[39] This species richness declines with an increase in latitude in both hemispheres.[40][41] Molecular clock estimates indicate that Ficus is a relatively ancient genus, being at least 60 million years old, and possibly up to 80 million years old.[23] However, the major diversification of living species likely occurred more recently, between 20 and 40 million years ago.

Subgenus Ficus

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Subgenus Pharmacosycea

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Subgenus Sycidium

[edit]

Subgenus Sycomorus

[edit]

Subgenus Synoecia

[edit]

The following species[42] are typically spreading or climbing lianas:

Subgenus Urostigma

[edit]

Unplaced species

[edit]

Uses

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The wood of fig trees is often soft and the latex precludes its use for many purposes. It was used to make mummy caskets in Ancient Egypt. Certain fig species (mainly F. cotinifolia, F. insipida and F. padifolia) are traditionally used in Mesoamerica to produce papel amate (Nahuatl: āmatl). Mutuba (F. natalensis) is used to produce barkcloth in Uganda. One of the standard kbach rachana decorative elements in Cambodian architecture was inspired by the shapes of the leaves of Pou (F. religiosa). Indian banyan (F. benghalensis) and the Indian rubber plant, as well as other species, have use in herbalism.[52][citation needed] The inner bark of an unknown type of wild fig, locally known as urú, was once used by the Moré people [es] of Bolivia to produce a fibrous cloth used for clothing.[53]

Cultivation

[edit]

Figs have played an important role in human culture since prehistoric times. Archaeological evidence indicates that the common fig (F. carica) and sycamore fig (F. sycomorus), were among the earliest plant species deliberately bred for agriculture in the Middle East over 11,000 years ago. Nine subfossil F. carica figs dated to about 9400–9200 BCE were discovered in the early Neolithic site of Gilgal I in the Jordan Valley, predating the earliest known grain cultivation in the region by many hundreds of years.[54] Fig cultivation was documented in the 12th-century agricultural work Book on Agriculture by Ibn al-'Awwam.[55] Today, numerous species of fig are found in cultivation in domestic and office environments, including:[56]

  • F. carica, common fig – hardy to −10 °C (14 °F). Grown outdoors in mild temperate regions for fruits. Many cultivars.
  • F. benjamina, weeping fig, ficus – hardy to 5 °C (41 °F). Popular indoor plant. Several cultivars.
  • F. elastica, rubber plant – hardy to 10 °C (50 °F): Popular houseplant. Several cultivars.
  • F. lyrata, fiddle-leaf fig – hardy to 10 °C (50 °F)
  • F. maclellandii – hardy to 5 °C (41 °F)
  • F. microcarpa, Indian laurel – hardy to 10 °C (50 °F)
  • F. pumila, creeping fig – hardy to 1 °C (34 °F)
  • F. rubiginosa, Port Jackson fig – hardy to 10 °C (50 °F)

Cultural significance

[edit]
Further information: Fig leaf and Figs in the Bible

Fig trees have profoundly influenced culture through several religious and cultural traditions, and several species are regarded as sacred. The sacred fig (F. religiosa) is especially important in Asia. In Buddhism, it is believed that Gautama Buddha attained bodhi (enlightenment) after meditating beneath the Bodhi tree for 49 days.[57][58] After destroyed in seventh century, a branch of the original tree was planted in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, approximately in the third century BCE.[57][59] In Hinduism, the same species is known as the Ashvattha, which is revered as a sacred "world tree." The Plaksa Pra-sravana was said to be a fig tree between the roots of which the Sarasvati River sprang forth; it is usually held to be a sacred fig but more probably is Ficus virens. In Jainism, the consumption of any fruit belonging to this genus is prohibited.[60] The common fig is one of two significant trees in Islam, and there is a sura in Quran named "The Fig" or At-Tin (سوره تین). The common fig tree is first mentioned in the Bible when Adam and Eve, after gaining knowledge of their nakedness, sew fig leaves together for coverings. Throughout the Hebrew Bible, the fig tree symbolizes peace, prosperity, and divine blessing.[61] It is often paired with the grapevine as a key agricultural product of ancient Israel and is listed among the Seven Species with which the land was blessed.[61] Its sweet fruit was highly valued, and the tree appears in parables and prophetic texts, sometimes as a symbol of abundance, and at other times, when withered or destroyed, as a metaphor for judgment and desolation.[61] The fig tree was sacred in ancient Greece and Cyprus, where it was a symbol of fertility.[citation needed]

Famous fig trees

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See also

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Citations

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  1. ^ a b c "Ficus Tourn. ex L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
  2. ^ "Ficus L., Sp. Pl. 2: 1059 (1753)". International Plant Names Index (IPNI). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2025. Retrieved 10 June 2025.
  3. ^ "ficus". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. OCLC 1032680871. Retrieved 2023-06-18.
  4. ^ Sunset Western Garden Book. Sunset Books. 1995. pp. 606–607. ISBN 978-0-37603-851-7.
  5. ^ "ficus". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. OCLC 1120411289.
  6. ^ Falistocco 2024, pp. 265–266.
  7. ^ Halevy, Abraham H. (1989). Handbook of Flowering Volume 6 of CRC Handbook of Flowering. CRC Press. p. 331. ISBN 978-0-8493-3916-5. Retrieved 2009-08-25.
  8. ^ <not recorded> (2005). "Moraceae - Ficus". Flora Malesiana. 17 (part 2): 436.
  9. ^ "Ficus: The Remarkable Genus Of Figs". Archived from the original on 2009-12-11. Retrieved 2021-05-16.
  10. ^ a b c Falistocco 2024, p. 271.
  11. ^ Forsyth, Adrian (1990). Portrait of the Rainforest. Camden East: Camden House, Ontario. p. 19.
  12. ^ Sarkhosh, Yavari & Ferguson 2022, pp. 22, 231.
  13. ^ a b Sarkhosh, Yavari & Ferguson 2022, p. 22.
  14. ^ Sarkhosh, Yavari & Ferguson 2022, p. 23.
  15. ^ Sarkhosh, Yavari & Ferguson 2022, pp. 24, 231.
  16. ^ Sarkhosh, Yavari & Ferguson 2022, p. 24.
  17. ^ a b Sarkhosh, Yavari & Ferguson 2022, p. 369.
  18. ^ Falistocco 2024, p. 274.
  19. ^ a b Sarkhosh, Yavari & Ferguson 2022, p. 31.
  20. ^ Sarkhosh, Yavari & Ferguson 2022, p. 146.
  21. ^ Armstrong, Wayne P; Disparti, Steven (4 April 1998). "A Key to Subgroups of Dioecious* (Gynodioecious) Figs Based On Fig Wasp/Male Syconium Pollination Patterns". Wayne's Word. Archived from the original on 2012-02-02. Retrieved 2012-01-05.
  22. ^ Valdeyron, Georges; Lloyd, David G. (June 1979). "Sex Differences and Flowering Phenology in the Common Fig, Ficus carica L.". Evolution. 33 (2): 673–685. doi:10.2307/2407790. JSTOR 2407790. PMID 28563939.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g Rønsted et al. (2005).
  24. ^ "Fig Wasps". www.fs.usda.gov. Retrieved 2025-07-02.
  25. ^ "The story of the fig and its wasp – Ecotone | News and Views on Ecological Science". esa.org. Retrieved 2025-07-03.
  26. ^ Machado, C. A.; Jousselin, E.; Kjellberg, F.; Compton, S. G.; Herre, E. A. (7 April 2001). "Phylogenetic relationships, historical biogeography and character evolution of fig-pollinating wasps". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 268 (1468): 685–694. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1418. PMC 1088657. PMID 11321056.
  27. ^ Yang, Li-Yuan; Machado, Carlos A.; Dang, Xiao-Dong; Peng, Yan-Qiong; Yang, Da-Rong; Zhang, Da-Yong; Liao, Wan-Jin (February 2015). "The incidence and pattern of copollinator diversification in dioecious and monoecious figs". Evolution. 69 (2): 294–304. Bibcode:2015Evolu..69..294Y. doi:10.1111/evo.12584. PMC 4328460. PMID 25495152.
  28. ^ Machado, C. A.; Robbins, N.; Gilbert, M. T. P.; Herre, E. A. (3 May 2005). "Critical review of host specificity and its coevolutionary implications in the fig/fig-wasp mutualism". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (Supplement 1): 6558–6565. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.6558M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0501840102. PMC 1131861. PMID 15851680.
  29. ^ a b c Molbo, D.; Machado, C.A.; Sevenster, J.G.; Keller, L.; Herre, E.A. (24 April 2003). "Cryptic species of fig-pollinating wasps: Implications for the evolution of the fig-wasp mutualism, sex allocation, and precision of adaptation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (10): 5867–5872. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.5867M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0930903100. PMC 156293. PMID 12714682.
  30. ^ "From air to stone: The fig trees fighting climate change". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  31. ^ Judd, W.S.; Campbell, C.S.; Kellogg, E.A.; Stevens, P.F.; Donoghue, M.J. (2008). Plant Systematics: A phylogenetic approach (3rd ed.). Sunderland (Massachusetts): Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0-87893-407-2.
  32. ^ a b c Falistocco 2024, p. 264.
  33. ^ a b c d Weiblen, G.D. (2000). "Phylogenetic relationships of functionally dioecious Ficus (Moraceae) based on ribosomal DNA sequences and morphology" (PDF). American Journal of Botany. 87 (9): 1342–1357. doi:10.2307/2656726. JSTOR 2656726. PMID 10991904. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
  34. ^ Corner, E.J.H. (1965). "Check-list of Ficus in Asia and Australasia with keys to identification". The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore. 21 (1): 1–186. Retrieved 5 Feb 2014 – via biodiversitylibrary.org.
  35. ^ a b Herre, E.; Machado, C.A.; Bermingham, E.; Nason, J.D.; Windsor, D.M.; McCafferty, S.; Van Houten, W.; Bachmann, K. (1996). "Molecular phylogenies of figs and their pollinator wasps". Journal of Biogeography. 23 (4): 521–530. Bibcode:1996JBiog..23..521H. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.1996.tb00014.x.
  36. ^ a b c Jousselin, E.; Rasplus, J.-Y.; Kjellberg, F. (2003). "Convergence and coevolution in a mutualism: evidence from a molecular phylogeny of Ficus". Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution. 57 (6): 1255–1269. Bibcode:2003Evolu..57.1255J. doi:10.1554/02-445. PMID 12894934. S2CID 1962136.
  37. ^ a b c d Rønsted et al. (2008).
  38. ^ Falistocco 2024, pp. 264–265.
  39. ^ Harrison (2005).
  40. ^ van Noort & van Harten (2006).
  41. ^ Berg & Hijmann (1989).
  42. ^ Berg (2003).
  43. ^ Berg (2003), p. 552.
  44. ^ Berg (2003), p. 554.
  45. ^ Berg (2003), p. 553.
  46. ^ Berg (2003), pp. 565.
  47. ^ Berg (2003), pp. 553–554.
  48. ^ Carauta & Diaz (2002), pp. 38–39.
  49. ^ a b van Noort, S.; Rasplus, J.Y. (2020). "Subsection Conosycea". Figweb: figs and fig wasps of the world. Retrieved 11 August 2019.
  50. ^ "Ficus geniculata Kurz". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2023. Retrieved 2025-11-02.
  51. ^ Kumari, Madhu; Hemke, Jay; Chaware, Gitesh; Kinchak, Bhushan. "Ficus geniculata (Putkal): A boon". International Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences.
  52. ^ Logesh, Rajan; Vivekanandarajah Sathasivampillai, Saravanan; Varatharasan, Sujarajini; Rajan, Soundararajan; Das, Niranjan; Pandey, Jitendra; Prasad Devkota, Hari (2023-01-01). "Ficus benghalensis L. (Moraceae): A review on ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological activities". Current Research in Biotechnology. 6 100134. doi:10.1016/j.crbiot.2023.100134. ISSN 2590-2628.
  53. ^ Castedo, Luis D. Leigue (1957). El Itenez Selvaje (PDF) (in Spanish). La Paz: Ministerio de Educación. pp. 9, 16, 19, 23.
  54. ^ Kislev, Hartmann & Bar-Yosef (2006).
  55. ^ Ibn al-'Awwam, Yaḥyá (1864). Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah) (in French). Translated by J.-J. Clement-Mullet. Paris: A. Franck. pp. 277–281 (ch. 7 - Article 25). OCLC 780050566. (pp. 277–281 (Article XXV)
  56. ^ Brickell, Christopher, ed. (2008). The Royal Horticultural Society A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 448. ISBN 9781405332965.
  57. ^ a b "Bodhi Tree". Oxford Reference.
  58. ^ Falistocco 2024, p. 266.
  59. ^ "Rocky Mountain Tree-Ring Research, OLDLIST". Retrieved 3 July 2011.
  60. ^ Tukol, T.K. (1980). Compendium of Jainism. Prasaranga: Karnatak University. p. 206.
  61. ^ a b c Shafer-Elliott, Cynthia (2022), Fu, Janling; Shafer-Elliott, Cynthia; Meyers, Carol (eds.), "Fruits, Nuts, Vegetables, and Legumes", T&T Clark Handbook of Food in the Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel, T&T Clark Handbooks (1 ed.), London: T&T Clark, p. 142, ISBN 978-0-567-67982-6, retrieved 2025-07-27{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)

General references

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